In 1735, he began studying Newton's works, publishing his first papers a year later. He established a precise scientific approach to solving static problems in construction, addressing structural issues in significant religious and cultural buildings (e.g., St. Peter's in Rome, St. Genevieve in Paris, the Milan Cathedral, and the Imperial Library in Vienna). Between 1751 and 1782, he also worked on hydraulic projects. Early on, he tackled the problems of the Earth's shape and size (On the Proofs of the Ancients for the Spherical Shape of the Earth, 1739; Dissertation on the Shape of the Earth, 1739) and issues related to Newton's theory of gravity (On the Inequality of Gravity in Different Parts of the Earth, 1741). To address these problems, in addition to theoretical research, he needed to conduct measurements of meridian degrees at various Earth locations. Pope Benedict XIV entrusted him, along with Jesuit Christopher Le Maire, to measure the meridian degrees between Rome and Rimini and to produce a geographic map of the Papal States. This marked Bošković's first scientific expedition (1750-1752), during which he improved existing measuring instruments or designed new ones. He published the results of his measurements and observations in On the Scientific Journey through the Papal States (De litteraria expeditione per Pontificiam, 1755), which included the new geographical map of the Church State (Nuova carta geografica dello Stato Ecclesiastico, 1755), created based on their joint data by Ch. Maire. This work, due to its innovative ideas in geosciences, influenced later cartography. At Bošković's initiative, geodetic measurements were conducted in Austria, Hungary, Piedmont, and Pennsylvania (USA).

Due to his success in resolving a dispute over border waters between the city-republic of Lucca and the Duchy of Tuscany, Lucca granted Bošković nobility (1757). During his stay in Vienna, he completed and published his renowned work Theory of Natural Philosophy Reduced to a Single Law of the Forces that Exist in Nature (Philosophiae naturalis theoria redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium, 1758; Croatian translation 1974). Following criticism of his scientific views, he traveled to major European scientific centers from Paris and London to Constantinople and Warsaw, reaching Rome and Pavia (1759-1763). He dedicated a poem in Latin verses, Solar and Lunar Eclipses (De Solis ac Lunae defectibus, 1760; French translation 1779), to the Royal Society, discussing his theory of eclipses. In 1761, he was elected a member of the Royal Society. At the society's encouragement, he traveled to Constantinople to observe the transit of Venus across the Sun. Unable to observe the transit, he used the time to investigate the ruins of Troy. Contradicting the then-accepted thesis that the ruins of Troy were located on the Anatolian coast opposite the island of Tenedos, he asserted they were deeper inland, a claim later confirmed by H. Schliemann's excavations. He wrote about this in Report on the Ruins of Troy (Relazione delle rovine di Troja, 1784). His journey from Constantinople to Poland was described in his travel diary Journal of a Journey from Constantinople (Giornale di un viaggio da Constantinopoli, 1784; Croatian translation 1951).

After returning to Italy, he was a mathematics professor at the University of Pavia (1764-1769). He founded the Brera Observatory near Milan (1764) and later held the chair of astronomy in Milan (1770-1773). Following the suppression of the Jesuit order (1773), Bošković moved to Paris in 1774 at the invitation of friends, received French citizenship, and served as a civil servant in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and as the director of optics at the Ministry of the Navy (he was to perfect the theory of achromatic telescopes and facilitate their application). In Paris, he completed his works in optics and astronomy, and due to poor health in 1782, he received a two-year leave (extended until 1787) to prepare his texts for printing. His works related to optics and astronomy were published in five volumes under the title Works Pertaining to Optics and Astronomy (Opera pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, 1785). Due to the arduous task of editing the texts, his health severely deteriorated. He died of pneumonia in Milan, where he is buried in the church of Santa Maria Podone. Throughout his life, Bošković remained attached to his native city, for which he conducted diplomatic affairs, visiting only once during his lifetime (1747). He was a member of nine academies, including those in Bologna (1746), Paris (1748), Saint Petersburg (1760), and London (1761).

Bošković's work spans various areas of science, but his most important contribution is his understanding of the structure of matter. His original theory of forces and matter structure is so relevant today that he can be considered a scientific visionary of the 20th century. The basis for Bošković's theory are the principles of simplicity and analogies (similarity) of nature, and the principle of continuity, with empirical motivation being a scientific problem current in the science of the time—the analysis of collisions. According to Bošković, matter consists of material (physical) points, which are simple, indivisible, non-extensible, impenetrable, separate, and without any structure, and are the origins of forces that act at a distance. They differ from mathematical points in that they have the property of inertia and that forces act between them, depicted by Bošković's curve (curva Boscovichiana). At short distances among the material point-like particles, the force is repulsive, and as the distance increases, it diminishes until it is nullified, becomes attractive, reaches a maximum, decreases to zero, again becomes repulsive, and so, repeating itself, changes its sign multiple times. At large distances, in accordance with Newton's law of gravity, the force is attractive. For very large distances, Bošković suggested the need to modify Newton's law of gravity. Bošković's curve of forces is continuous and consists of two asymptotic arms (repulsive and attractive) and intersects the abscissa axis at equilibrium points named points of cohesion and non-cohesion. Bošković's force is very similar to the force between atoms in a molecule or solid body and to the nuclear force among nucleons (protons and neutrons), and Karl Herzfeld named it "potential energy according to Bošković." A single law of forces that exist in nature (lex unica virium in natura existentium), i.e., the idea that all reality can be explained based on one law, is Bošković's contribution to world science. This idea was visible in A. Einstein, W. Heisenberg, and in contemporary science, where a unique theory has not yet succeeded in describing the four known forces in nature (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear force). Bošković's single law is a blueprint for a grand unified field theory or even more a theory of everything. From the unconditional requirement that the law of continuity must be preserved, it followed the rejection of the possibility of direct contact of particles due to the repulsive force (until then, no one had denied the existence of contact among particles of matter). Today, science considers that the basic components of matter are as Bošković imagined them. Bošković's material points are the most elementary components of matter and connect them with quarks and leptons in today's science. As matter consists of point-like particles, it follows that there is much empty space in it. This broke with the materialistic-corpuscular theory of matter and established a true dynamic-atomistic theory, creating a new concept of reality and a new image of the world, so along with the so-called "Copernican revolution," one should speak of the "Bošković revolution," because it is "the greatest triumph over the senses that has so far been achieved on Earth" and that Bošković and Copernicus are "the two greatest opponents of illusion" (F. Nietzsche, 1882, 1886).

Allowing more repulsive areas in his potential, Bošković gave the first "pramodel" for "quark confinement," which is one of the central problems of elementary particle physics. From non-extensible material points, larger particles and from them larger masses are constructed. Bošković called them particles of the first, second, third... order, which corresponds to today's knowledge about the structure of matter: quarks and antiquarks would be first-order particles, nucleons second, atomic nuclei third, atoms fourth, molecules fifth... The properties of these particles and their mutual differences depend on their internal structure. Bošković was among the first to claim just that, and the idea of the connection between the properties of matter and its structure appeared only in the 19th century (J. J. Berzelius, 1830).

The application of Bošković's law of forces to the case of three points, two of which are in the foci of an ellipse, is known as the so-called Bošković "model of the atom" (1748), which long before quantum theory introduces the idea of "allowed" and "forbidden" paths, i.e., quantizes the path of particle motion, which J. J. Thomson directly took over from Bošković (1907), and N. Bohr made this idea the basis for his model of the atom (1913). "Bohr's model of the atom is a direct descendant of Bošković's law of forces between particles separated by microscopic distances"... "Where Bošković planted 200 years ago, others have reaped" (H. V. Gill, 1941). Bošković can also be considered a precursor of thermodynamics and the kinetic theory of matter, the theory of elasticity of solid bodies, and the explanation of crystal shapes.

Bošković criticized Newton's understanding of absolute space and time and himself constructed an understanding of space-time relationships that is inseparably connected with point-like material atoms and forces among them. Extensive matter is not continuous but discrete and represents a dynamic configuration of a finite number of force centers. According to Bošković's simple dynamic atomistics, matter is not only a carrier of forces (dynamic system) but consists of forces (dynamic system). Forces emanate from atoms that fill the entire space. Such an understanding led to the idea of the field, which was later formulated by M. Faraday (1844), and through him and J. C. Maxwell entered science. From Bošković's understanding of spatial and temporal variable modes of existence (modi existendi), consequences arose that, despite all differences, link his theory with Einstein's theory of relativity. Bošković can be considered a precursor of the theory of relativity in three senses. First, he accepted the principle of relativity (a century and a half before E. Mach and A. Einstein), i.e., he claimed that from direct observations or experiments, one cannot distinguish absolute and relative space, time, and motion, nor prove the principle of inertia. Second, he advocated the idea of changing the dimensions of a body when transferred from one place to another. Bošković does not give a quantitative measure of this change. Third, he spoke about the possibility of a space that would have four dimensions.

In the Theory of Natural Philosophy... Bošković speaks of some all-knowing "spirit," which, based on Newton's laws, would be able to know all the past and future from an accurate knowledge of all forces and initial positions at some moment. Almost in the same way, the French Scientist P. S. Laplace formulated the principle of classical determinism half a century later (1814). That "spirit," "intelligent being," called (Emil Heinrich du Bois-Reymond) "Laplace's spirit" or "Laplace's demon," should be called "Bošković's spirit" (S. Hondl).

Bošković's Scientific Contributions

The importance and relevance of Bošković's ideas in contemporary science is evidenced, among other things, by the statement by W. Heisenberg (1958): "In Bošković's work, there are many ideas that have only fully come to expression in modern physics in the last fifty years and which show how correct were the philosophical views that Bošković followed in his natural science." In his first mathematical work Construction of Spherical Trigonometry (Trigonometriae sphaericae constructio, 1737) he introduced a graphical method for solving triangles into spherical trigonometry. He derived four basic formulas of differential trigonometry. In the work Fundamentals of All Mathematics (Elementorum universae matheseos, 1754) he presents the theory of transformations of geometric places and the original theory of conic sections based on the synthetic method. Researching the foundations of mathematics in relation to issues and concepts of continuity and infinity, he published the work On the Nature and Use of Infinite and Infinitely Small Quantities (De natura et usu infinitorum et infinite parvorum, 1741). Finite and infinitely distant points he treated equally as the creator of projective geometry J. W. Poncelet (1820). He allowed for the possibility of the existence of different geometries. Researching the principle of continuity, he came to an explicit formulation of the continuum of real numbers (On the Law of Continuity... – De continuitatis lege..., 1754; Croatian translation 1996) before the German mathematicians J. W. R. Dedekind and G. Cantor. He anticipated the possibility of constructing a continuous curve that has no tangents at any of its points, which was proven only in 1904 (Koch's curve). Since he anticipated the problems of the "geometry of nature," Bošković can be considered the "forefather of fractal theory," the mathematical foundation of the theory of deterministic chaos.

In mechanics, he studied the motion of a material point (On the Motion of Bodies Thrown into Space Without Resistance... – De motu corporum projectorum in spatio non resistente..., 1740). By the method of the pendulum, he determined the magnitude of gravity and established its inequality on Earth (1741). He solved the problem of the body of greatest attraction (Mechanical Problem on the Solid Body of Greatest Attraction... – Problema mechanicum de solido maximae attractionis..., 1743) and the problem of the center of gravity (On the Center of Gravity... – De centro gravitatis..., 1751).

His first scientific work was in astronomy: On Sunspots... (De maculis solaribus..., 1736). Followed by A Treatise on the Recent Transit of Mercury Across the Sun... (De Mercurii novissimo infra Solem transitu..., 1737), On the Northern Lights... (De aurora boreali..., 1738). He introduced a new method of determining the parabolic path of comets from three close observations (On Comets... – De cometis..., 1746). Bošković's developed method preceded Olbers's method from 1797. Bošković set the criterion for the type of path (elliptical, parabolic, or hyperbolic) of a celestial body (On Determining the Paths of Planets with the Help of Catoptrics... – De determinanda orbita planetae ope catoptricae..., 1749), which served as a basis for researching the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn (On the Inequalities that Saturn and Jupiter Seem to Mutually Induce, Especially at the Time of Conjunction – De inaequalitatibus quas Saturnus et Jupiter sibi mutuo videntur inducere praesertim circa tempus coniunctionis, 1756). After Herschel's discovery of a new celestial body (Uranus), Bošković was among the first, based on theoretical calculations of the trajectory, to assert that the newly discovered celestial body is a planet.

Bošković dealt with problems of optics in relation to work in astronomy. In the work Treatise on the Rarity of Sunlight... (Dissertazione della tenuità della lucesolare..., 1747) he estimates the density of sunlight. He was very critical of the opinion about the rectilinear propagation of light, claiming that in cosmic distances it cannot be proven that light propagates rectilinearly. He was the first to formulate the photometric law of lighting, known as Lambert's law.

Quite early, he invented the circular micrometer, dealt with lens errors and their removal (achromatic aberration), and improved optical devices. For determining the refraction and dispersion of light, he constructed a device called a vitrometer. He proposed a type of water-filled telescope, with which he intended to conduct an experiment to determine the nature of light. He made optical prisms with a variable angle (vitrometer) with which the index of refraction could be measured. He developed the first satisfactory theory of luminescence.

In geophysics, he researched the northern lights (1738), tide and ebb (1747), and the whirlwind that devastated part of Rome (1749). He hinted at the existence of tidal waves of the solid Earth's crust. He was the first to determine the irregular shape of the Earth, later called the geoid (J. B. Listing, 1873). Bošković claimed that the shape of the Earth is not only irregular but also variable over time, which was proven much later.

Bošković laid the foundations for the theory of isostasy (1742, 1755, 1785), although the term comes from the American Geologist C. E. Dutton (1889). According to this theory, accumulations of masses in the Earth's crust are compensated by a corresponding arrangement of masses in the Earth's interior. The discovery of the Mohorovičić discontinuity between the Earth's crust and mantle (MOHO) in 1910 is in accordance with Bošković's ideas about isostasy.

Bošković was the first in the history of science to establish the method of equalizing the results of measurements by setting two conditions, which P. S. Laplace later expressed in mathematical form, and it was named after him as Laplace's method (in modern times it is used as the Bošković-Laplace method). This original Bošković method was long suppressed in practice by the so-called method of least squares (A. M. Legendre and C. F. Gauss, around 1800).

Bošković was one of the last universal minds. He also engaged in archaeology, practical problems of draining swamps, regulating rivers and city ports, construction statics, etc.

He is also known for his literary work, which his contemporaries emphasized by comparing him with Lucretius. As a writer of occasional Latin verses, he was a member of the Roman literary society Arcadia. He dedicated his elegies, epigrams, soteries, eclogues to dignitaries of his time such as Pope Benedict XIV, Empress Maria Theresa, cardinals, ministers, and other church and secular dignitaries. His most important literary work is Solar and Lunar Eclipses (1760), which was dedicated in the French translation (1779) to King Louis XVI. His best poem Virgo sine labe concepta (1784) was translated from Latin to Croatian by his sister Anica, a poet from Dubrovnik, under the title Virgin Conceived Without Sin, and he translated from Croatian to Italian (1762) her poem Pastoral Conversation on the Birth of the Lord.

Thanks to acquaintances and friendly relations with kings, princes, counts, ambassadors, cardinals, bishops, and others, he helped Dubrovnik solve diplomatic problems. Polish King Stanisław Poniatowski, Bošković's friend, mediated with the Russian Empress Catherine II the Great and Dubrovnik was saved from the Russian siege during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74). Through the mediation of the French Minister of Foreign Affairs C. G. de Vergennes, Dubrovnik became a port equal to the ports of the Western Mediterranean (1776). The Dubrovnik Senate was informed by Bošković about political, social, and ecclesiastical conditions in Europe and the world.

Text taken from the Croatian Encyclopedia, online edition. Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography, 2013 – 2024.